From the beginnings of its history until the present, Vietnam has known three kinds of writing systems:
1. The chu Hán or chu nho (the script of the Hans or script of scholars): This is the Chinese
writing system, which was imposed on the Vietnamese people by the Chinese conquerors as the official language.
The Chinese characters took on a Vietnamese pronunciation, based on the Chinese speech of the 10th century.
For almost nine centuries of independence between 938 and 1814, and even during to the first thirty years of
French domination (1884-1917), Vietnamese kings continued to adopt the chu nho as the official script.
2. The chu nôm (the Vietnamemse script, nôm = nam),called demotic script by some
authors, was the script of the people. Derived from the Chinese stock and principles of word formation, the
chu nôm was invented by scholars around the 13th century to reduce Vietnamese speech to writing.
3. The chu quôc ngu (the national script), created by Western missionaries to preach
the Catholic religion to Vietnam during the 18th century, was a phonetic representation of Vietnamese speech
using the Latin alphabet. From 1917 on, with the encouragement of French authorities, the chu quôc ngu
and Vietnamese ascended to their rightful place as the official script and language of Vietnam.
In contrast to the chu nho, which was used to write Chinese sentences, the chu nôm and the
chu quôc ngu represented the speech of the Vietnamese people. From this fact one can conclude that
only the chu nôm and the chu quôc ngu are the true national scripts. Indeed, according to a
widely accepted definition, "there must be a system of symbols for which the speech community established
meanings and usage in advance," and "which allow for the spoken language to be recorded." (J. Février).
The origins of the Chu Nôm: Chinese characters
To better understand the formation of the Chu Nôm it is necessary to gain a general view
of the principles governing Chinese characters. Lexicographers divided Chinese characters into six classes
called liu shu or luc thu in Sino-Vietnamese. By the traditional theory, primitive elements were
made of images and symbols from which all the other classes are formed by composition or by derivation.
1. The pictographs (xiang xing, in SVN: tuong hinh)
represent objects. For example, the iconic characters shan and mu represent the mountain
and the tree.
2. The symbols (zhi shi, in SVN: chi su) represent abstract ideas and
actions. For example, the character shang (above, to ascend) is made up of a vertical stroke and an oblique
tick above a horizontal stroke, as opposed to the character xia (below, to descend), which is composed of
a vertical stroke and a oblique tick below the horizontal stroke.
3. The logical aggregate (hui y, in SVN: hoi y) is a combination
of two components contributing to the sense, to express a new idea. For example, the character ming
(to sing) is composed of niao (bird) and kou (mouth) : "bird" and "mouth" suggest the idea
of singing.
4. The phonograms (xieng sheng, in SVN: tuong thanh)
are formed from a phonetic element and another element that indicates the general class of objects or ideas to which the
word refers. The first element is then the "phonetic," and the second is the "key." For example, the character
ling (bell) is composed of the phonetic linh (to command) and of the key jïn (metal).
The phonetic gives the word its pronunciation linh while the key "metal" indicates the nature of the
bell, which is made of metal.
5. The translation of characters (jia jie, in SVN: chuyen chu).
This process derives a new character by adding, removing or displacing certain strokes in an existing character.
For example, to the character xiào (small) a descending leftward stroke is added to generate another
character shào with the new meaning of "small in number, or provisional."
6. The false loans (jîã jîê, in SVN: gia tá). These are
derived characters obtained by a modification of the pronunciation of existing characters. For example,
if the character xiàng (appearance, air), pronounced with the 4th tone, is pronounced with the 1st tone,
the new character xiãng means "mutually, reciprocally."
The rules of formation of the Chu Nôm
From the Chinese elements and principles of word formation our scholars invented
the chu nôm with which to write the Vietnamese speech. Essentially they devised a phonetic representation
of the language by adopting the false loans and the phonograms.
A. The false loans (gia tá)
1. Transcription of Chinese borrowings
To transcribe Chinese loanwords (essentially religious, literary, administrative, technical terms...,
which abound in the Vietnamese lexicon), both the Chinese graphic representation and the Sino-Vietnamese
pronunciation are retained. For example, chu toa (to preside), dai lô (boulevard), minh bach
(clear), toán hoc (mathematics).
2. Transcription of Vietnamese words proper
By and large, the Chinese written form is borrowed whole, if its pronunciation more or less
corresponds to a Vietnamese word regardless of meaning.
(a) Thus a Chinese word is borrowed for its sound to transcribe a Vietnamese homophone.
The Vietnamese pronunciation is actually the Sino-Vietnamese pronunciation of the Chinese loanword.
For example. the Chinese character chi (personal pronoun used as a direct object) is borrowed to transcribe
the Vietnamese chi (what); the Chinese character qua (an ancient weapon) to transcribe the
Vietnamese qua (to traverse).
(b) A Chinese character is borrowed to transcribe a near-homophonous Vietnamase word.
For example, the Chinese character biêt (to separate) is borrowed to transcribe the Vietnamese biêt
(to know), the Chinese character nu (a female, a woman) to transcribe the Vietnamese nua (more).
(c) A Chinese character is borrowed for its meaning to transcribe a Vietnamese synonym,
which retains its Vietnamese pronunciation. This amounts to saying the Chinese word in Vietnamese, by
the device of simultaneous translation (very much like the practice among the Japanese to read a Chinese
text while simultaneously rendering it in spoken Japanese).
For example, the Chinese character ky (a chair) is read as ghé in Vietnamese,
to mean 'a chair'. And the element of a Chinese character vi (to do) is spoken as làm
(to do) in Vietnamese.
B. The phonograms (hài thanh)
We have seen above that characters of this class are composed of the phonetic element
and the semantic element. For example, the character cát (sand) is transcribed by using two
Chinese characters, the phonetic cát (propitious) and the semantic thô (earth). The phonetic
component cát provides the pronunciation while the semantic 'earth' supplies the meaning, the
general class of object to which the word 'sand' refers.
C. The logical aggregates (hôi ý)
These are characters made up of two components both of which contribute to the denotation.
For example, the character trùm (chief) is a combination of the Chinese characters nhân (a man)
and thuong (above). The 'man' and 'above' evoke the idea of the 'chief.'
It has been observed that among the extant texts and inscriptions in chu nôm,
semantic combinations are extremely rare. Finally, there are distinctive signs that are added alongside
a chu nôm character to advise the reader to modify the pronunciation so as to conform to the
tones and phonology of the Vietnamese language:
- either to the right of the character, such as the dâu cá (specific sign) written
as
or as
, and the
dâu nhâp nháy (blinking sign)
.
The latter, invented after the dâu cá, is found only among the chu nôm texts and inscriptions
of the second half of the nineteenth century.
- or on the top left of the character, such as the sign
, which is
a reduced form of the character khâu used as a diacritic and devoid of semantic content.
The chu nôm is created principally according to the gia ta principle, i.e., the principle of false
borrowing of homophones. Since there are many Vietnamese words for which Chinese homophones do
not exist, one had to resort to borrowings with a close pronunciation. The upshot
is that a chu nôm character may be pronounced in several ways, and several different characters may
have the same meaning. Often the Chinese character borrowed for its sound gives only an imperfect
phonetic rendering. Furthermore, abbreviations of characters prove difficult to interpret and sometimes a
word is written differently by different authors. There was no institution to standardize the writing of
chu nôm and allow Vietnamese to read and write it in the same way. Nevertheless from the
linguistic point of view, the chu nôm serves a useful purpose for the Vietnamese language. The
semantic elements called the 'keys' help to specify the meaning of homophones in quoc ngu. For
example, the sound sequence nam, spelled by three letters N-A-M in quoc ngu, may mean
'five' or 'year'; however, in chu nôm these are transcribed differently depending on the sense:
(1) the key niên, which means 'year' + the phonetic nam (nam),
(2) the key ngu, which signifies 'five' + the phonetic nam (nam).
It is easily seen that the first word 'nam' means 'year', and the second word means 'five'.
In numerous cases the chu nôm helps distinguish between the initials d (z) and gi,
ch and tr, and between the finals n and ng, c and t, etc.
History
In spite of the indifference, even the disdain, of scholars, after its birth sometime
in the fourteenth century, the chu nôm had gained a solid footing by the fifteenth century to finally
establish itself firmly in the national literature by the end of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
The first manifestations of the chu nôm
We do not know precisely when the chu nôm was created. As material proof of its
earliest existence, one has often cited twenty or so nôm characters which represented names of
Vietnamese communities in a stele which was identified by H. Maspero (in B.E.F.E.O., tome XII, no. 1) as dating
to 1343 (under the reign de Tran Du Tông), on Mount Duc Thúy (province of Ninh Binh). Actually no one
has found the stele, or the impression of its inscriptions.
In 1970, Dào Duy Anh announced the existence of another, more ancient stele, dating to 1210 (under the
reign of Ly Cao Tông), at the Bao An pagoda in the village of Thâp Miêu of the former province of
Phúc Yên (now Vinh Phuc), on which were inscribed 21 names of persons, of villages, of hamlets in chu nôm.
In addition, according to Kham Dinh Viet Su Thong Giam Cuong Muc (Annals of Vietnam), it was Nguyên Thuyên alias Hàn
Thuyên who, at the beginning of the thirteenth century, utilized this script for his literary works. Following
his example were two other scholars Nguyên Si Cô (second half of the 13th century) and Chu Van An
(14th century). Some novels in verse written in chu nôm were also attributed to the same epoch:
Trê Coc (The Catfish and the Toad), Trinh Thu (The Virtuous Mouse). However, judging
from certain details of form, they seemed to have dated subsequently to the 14th century.
The Le dynasty and the literary development in chu nôm
It was only during the 15th century that chu nôm began to assert itself, notably with the
Hong Duc Quoc Âm Thi Tap (Anthology of poetry in the national language in the Hong Duc period),
and the Quoc Am Thi Tap (Anthology of poetry in the national language)
by Nguyên Trai. The latter is the oldest collection of poems in chu nôm that has been preserved.
Written in a simple and natural style, these poems manifested a profound love of country, a bitter disgust
toward the corruption rampant at the Court, and a strong attachment to a simple way of life away from
society. It was not until the 16th century that chu nôm made great strides both in form and in
substance. The greatest chu nôm poet of this period was Nguyen Binh Khiem. His collection
Bach Van Quoc Ngu Thi Tap (Poems in the national language by Bach Van) extols the virtue
of leisure, solitude, communion with nature, and confesses in more or less veiled terms his regrets for not
being able to serve his country better.
During the 18th century the literature in chu nôm continued to perfect itself,
and to develop in different genres: poetry, tales, and above all, novels in verse (truyen). In poetry
mention must be made of two women of great talent: Doàn Thi Diêm, author of Chinh Phu Ngâm
(Plaint of a Warrior's Wife), a famous translation into chu nôm of Dang Tran Côn's
oeuvre in Sino-Vietnamese; and Ho Xuân Huong, who distinguished herself by the realism of her verses
that drip with sexuality, and evoke without varnish or vulgarity the secrets of the female body.
Next came the flowering of tales, fables, folksongs (ca dao), humorous
stories (chuyen tiêu lâm), anonymous works of satire and humor such as Trang Quynh
(History of Docteur Quynh), Trang Lon (History of Docteur Pig), Tu Xuat (History
of Bachelor Xuât). Ba Giai (History of Mr. Ba Giai), which ridiculed the foibles of society as well
as the abuses in the competitive examination system of their time.
Dynastic transition and the apogee of the literature in chu nôm
However, the literature in chu nôm reached its pinnacle only with the novels
in verse of the end of the Le dynasty and the beginning of the Nguyen (end of the 18th to the beginning
of the 19th centuries). Among the most celebrated may be cited:
Hoa Tîên (Flowery Letters) by Nguyên Huy Tu, amelioriated by Nguyên Thien; Kim Van Kiêu
(History of Kim, Van and Kieu) by Nguyên Du ; Cung Oán Ngâm Khúc (The Plaint of an Odalisque)
by Nguyên Gia Thiêu; Bích Câu Ky Ngo (Wonderful Encounter at Bïch Cau), anonymous; Phan Tran
(History of Phan and Tràn), anonymous; Nhi Do Mai (The Twice-Blossoming Apricot), anonymous;
Luc Vân Tiên (History of Luc Van Tien) by Nguyên Dinh Chiëu, Thach Sanh
(Young Thach), anonymous; Nu Tu Tài (The Woman Bachelor), anonymous...
Beside Nguyên Du's Kim Van Kieu pale all other literary oeuvres, be they
written in chu nôm or in quoc ngu. By the beauty of its verses, by its admirable knowledge
of human psychology, by its vivid and realistic depiction of the entire society, Kim Van Kieu has earned its place as
the favorite bedside storybook of the Vietnamese people. It is the culmination of a long evolution of the
national script of chu nôm, the synthesis of the simple six-eight prosodic meter of the folksong and
the more sophisticated form already seen in Chinh Phu Ngâm and in Hoa Tien..
During the first half of the 19th century, the ca trù (poem-song composed by the
scholars to be sung by professional female singers) was renovated and perfected by Nguyen Cong Tru
and Cao Ba Quat. Nguyen Cong Tru, man of action and poet, was under-appreciated by the Kings Minh
Menh and Thieu Tri. His checkered career in the mandarinate had seen moments of glory (as a minister,
then a general) followed by humiliating demotions (to a private sent to a frontier outpost). Thus his
poems, especially in his ca trù, reflected a strange mixture of contradictory sentiments: an exaltation
of extraordinary exploits of heroes alongside the aspiration for a withdrawal to the refuge of nature; a determination
to conform to the norms and exigencies of Confucian ethics side by side with the propensity toward the
enjoyment of life and its diversions and blessings. His language is simple, natural, flowing. His Sino-Vietnamese
expressions are always explicated by popular locutions from everyday language.
As a Confucian Nguyen Cong Tru made, through his poems, professions of loyalty to his
sovereigns inspite of their lack of appreciation. In contrast, Cao Ba Quat in the name of the same Confucian
ethos rebelled against the decadent monarchy of his time, intent on a complete makeover. He termed his
insurrection a "Thang Vo revolution" reusing the term by which the Chinese historian Tu Ma Thien
characterized the overthrow of King Kiet by King Thanh Thang and that of King Tru by King Vo Vuong. The
king is but a holder of the heavenly mandate, charged with the responsibility of insuring the well-being of
the people. Failure to accomplish this charge results in its being removed by the Celestial Emperor. The
term "cach menh" (literally to relieve one of a mission) means the cancellation of the Mandate of Heaven, and
is used today to translate the French word "revolution."
Cao Ba Quat was regarded by his contemporaries as one of the greatest poets of his time.
His poems reflected a sensibility toward the beauty of nature, and an awareness of the brevity of life and
mostly of the people's misery. He is the poet of libation. It was only wine that could disssipate his great
distress before the ineluctable misfortunes of life. His ca tru are of unrivalled purity and charm.
If Nguyen Cong Tru was credited with renovating the genre of ca tru, it is Cao Ba Quat who won
the glory of endowing the literature in chu nôm with ca tru creations of utmost perfection.
Another poetess in chu nôm of the nineteenth century, Ba Huyen Thanh Quan,
pseudonym of Nguyen Thi Hinh, owed her reputation as much to the purity and elegance of her verse, whose
quatrains were fashioned as perfectly as those of Tang poets, as to her ill-hidden sentiments: a vague
and discreet melancholy of loniless, poignant regrets for a glorious Le period.
The times of decline
In 1858 France decided to conquer Vietnam. In the face of superior modern weapons, the Court
at first adopted a policy of concession, only to end up with capitulation. But the Vietnamese people continued
to wage a bitter struggle that lasted forty years, led by scholars and Kings Ham Nghi, Thanh Thai and Duy Tan.
(who, after their failure, were deposed and banished by the French authorities). The resistance had almost
totally monopolized the chu nôm literature of the period. Writers did not seek art for art's sake: literature
was an instrument to appeal to patriotism and to struggle for the independence of the country. Standing above all
these known and unknown authors was the dominant stature of Nguyen Dinh Chieu.
A Southerner by birth, Nguyen Dinh Chieu had witnessed from the beginning of the hostilities
until his death in 1888 all the painful events that wrecked his country. He was the epitome of a scholar who
dedicated his life to the defense of his country in danger and of the Way of the Sage, which was the fundamental
principle of his life. Among his works in chu nôm the most important are: Luc Van Tiên
(History of Luc Van Tien), a novel in verse in which the hero stood firm on his Confucian principles
against the vicissitudes of life; Duong Tu Ha Mau, a long poem that extols patriotism and Confucianism
over the religions of foreign origin. In Van Te Nghia Si Can Giuoc (Funeral Oration in honor of the
resistance fighters of Can Giuoc) and in Van Te Truong Công Dinh (Eulogy of Truong Công Dinh)
Nguyen Dinh Chieu paid tribute to the Can Giuoc resistance fighters and the prestigious resistance
leader.
The dawn of the twentieth century was marked by the firm implantation of the colonial
regime, by changes in the social structure, by the emergence of a new class of collaborators such as mandarins,
civil servants, bourgeois, notables,... as well as by a new direction and new forms of national life. Still,
numerous were those who, by virtue of their integrity, had refused to collaborate with the enemy, and had
chosen a life of want. Realizing their impotence, they often resorted to satirical humor, which is a weapon
suited to the weak in their struggle against a superior enemy. However, the laughs, ironies and sarcasms of
their works were tinged with sadness, and ended up in tearful sobs. This form of literature was well represented
by two notable authors: Nguyen Khuyen and Tran Te Xuong.
The illustrious Nguyen Khuyen was three times Honor Laureate in the triennial contests
and a highly respected mandarin at the time of the Court's surrender. Under the pretext of an eye disease, he requested
a much anticipated retirement. He had even declined a nomination to the post of province governor initiated
by the French authorities. Living frugally in his native village, he began to write poems in chu nôm
thereby following the long tradition of satirical popular literature. Though his humor was full of subtleties and rich in
veiled allusions, his criticisms were no less acerbic. Nguyen Khuyen also wrote lyrical verse, in which he
exhibited love of nature in the portrayal of an autumn scene or the flight of a migratory bird, meditated upon
old friendships, and suffered before the misery of victims of natural disasters. His language is sincere,
refined, picturesque and of the highest purity. Often he indulged in self-pity. What was the use of all
his diplomas, his knowledge and professional honors when all he could do was sit idly by while his country
was invaded by foreigners and his people suffered grievously?
Tran Te Xuong, also known as Tu Xuong (Bachelier Xuong), is a very
popular satirical poet. He failed several times at the triennial examinations, and for want of money, he was
never able to secure a nomination to the mandarinate. His failures and poverty left him a very bitter man.
Like Nguyen Khuyen, he directed his attacks on the mandarins, civil servants, bourgeois, the conquerors'
domestics. His poetry spread like wildfire throughout the country. If Nguyen Khuyen is subtle, veiled,
implicit, Tran Te Xuong revels in crude images, violent turns of phrase, even indecorum. However, when he
dedicated his rare poems to Phan Boi Chau, a revolutionary for whom he had great admiration, his tone became
serious and filled with tenderness. Tran Te Xuong did not write in chu nho (Sino-Vietnamese). His
language is the vernacular, the everyday language of the people, devoid of literary or mythological
allusions.
Nguyen Khuyen and Tran Te Xuong are the last poets of the period of the chu nôm
literature. Soon a new generation, schooled in Western ways, would pick up the torch from the scholars
of Chinese culture.
Summary
In sum, the evolution of chu nôm, with which the Vietnamese language identifies itself,
lasted four hundred years. From the 18th century on numerous literary works written in "modern" chu nôm
gained solid recognition not only among the masses but among the scholars as well. The creation of the
chu nôm was initiated by the effort of individuals, who were motivated by the constant need of Vietnamese
men to express themselves, and to confide on paper their intimate sentiments, and by the desire of the Vietnamese
people to complete its independence. It is the reaction of an entire nation against foreign cultural domination.
Thus the chu nôm had achieved great strides every time a broad-based movement swept the country.
In the 14th century, when the country enjoyed the blissful days of independence, King
Tran Anh Tong reminded officials responsible for disseminating royal ordinances and administrative
documents to translate them into chu nôm to allow the people to understand their content.
Ho Qui Ly (1400-1407), a king keenly jealous of the cultural independence of his country, had several
volumes of Confucian literature translated into chu nôm and encouraged the use of the new script
in official communications. Nguyên Huê (1788-1792), after repelling a Chinese invasion, decreed that the chu nôm
should be the language of administration as well as of the triennial examinations. At the end of the nineteenth
century, a critical moment in our history, the scholar Nguyen Truong To, former student in Rome and Paris,
addressed no fewer than fifteen petitions to King Tu Duc asking for a radical reform of the country, of
which the petition of 1867 proposed the replacement of Chinese characters by chu nôm. Among
others the petitions called for the renovation and standardization of this writing system, for the publication
of a dictionary of chu nôm to be used by the administration and in schools, so that everybody could
read and write in the same way. At first Tu Duc loved the idea, but the gradually spreading occupation of the
country by the French and the fanatic conservatism of his Court finally persuaded him to reject the proposals.
From chu nôm to chu quôc ngu
We have reviewed the names of the greatest authors in chu nôm literature. And they
decidedly form a large part of the Vietnamese pantheon. They wrote their works in chu nôm, and
thanks to this script Vietnamese were able to produce a remarkable national literature, from the novels in verse by
Nguyen Du and Nguyen Huy Tu, through the plaints of Chinh Phu Ngam and Cung Oan Ngam Khuc, to the
the poems of Nguyen Cong Tru, Cao Ba Quat, Ho Xuan Huong, Ba Huyen Thanh Quan, Nguyen Khuyen,
Tran Te Xuong, to cite only a few. Today since few people know how to decipher this script, the above
works had to be transcribed into chu quoc ngu for use in libraries and schools.
Like Vietnam, countries under the cultural influence of China for centuries have
adopted their own scripts, not only to transcribe Chinese loanwords, but also to reduce their
national language to writing. Their effort resulted in composite systems that are more or less long-lasting.
The Japanese devised a mixed system of syllabic symbols (kano) and Chinese characters; the Koreans nowadays
have acquired a non-Phoenician alphabet. Still these scripts retain a large number of Chinese characters,
especially in philosophical, literary and technical writings. Vietnamese alone has used nothing but the
Latin alphabet.
Starting from 1917, the word-based nôm writing system has given way to the phonetic
quôc ngu. In the word-based writing system a considerable inventory of signs and characters is
necessary as there must be as many signs as there are words in the language. Consequently one is required
to have a very large memory to retain a sufficient amount of characters necessary for reading.
In contrast, a sound-based script such as the quôc ngu is far less cumbersome.
The great writers in chu nôm have handed down a Vietnamese language already
polished and refined. Since the chu quôc ngu is a system at once simple and easy to handle, it
has the ability to render the spoken language faithfully, thereby facilitating the expression of the people's
sentiments and a widespead dissemination of newly imported Western ideas that help to shape the
emergence of the new Vietnamese man and society in the periods to come.
Bibliography
In French
Alleton, Viviane, L'Ecriture Chinoise (The Chinese Script), Pans, P.U.K, 1970.
Bui Quang Tung & Nguyen Huong, Le Dai Viet et ses voisins
(The Dai Viet and its Neighbors), Paris, L'Harmattan, 1990.
Higounet, Charles, L'Ecriture (The Writing System), Paris, P.U.F., 1955.
Le Thành Khôi, Histoire du Vietnam (A History of Vietnam), Paris, S.E.A., 1982.
In Vietnamese
Buu Cam, Uu va khuyet diem cua Chu Nôm (The Strengths and Weaknesses
of the Chu Nom), Khao Co Tâp San (Review of Archaelogy), Sàigon, 1960.
Dao Duy Anh, Chu Nôm, Paris.S.E.A., 1979.
Duong Quang Hàm, Viet Nam Van Hoc Su Yeu (A Short History of
Vietnamese Literature), Pans, A.S.E., 1986.
Nguyen Ta Nhi, “Loi dánh dâu cá trong chu nôm” (The Dau Ca Sign
in Chu Nom), Tap Chi Han Nôm (The Chinese-Nom Journal), so 1+2, Ha Noi, 1987.